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SOME HISTORY

For several years now, you’ve probably been hearing about “Linux.”  You may be wondering if it’s something you should know about, even be considering for your computer.  You may even know that it is a free alternative operating system to Windows that’s been around for over two decades.  But you may also be a little afraid to learn any more about it because it seems intimidating.  Now, I’m not saying you should switch to Linux.  It has its uses just as it has its detriments.  It just depends on what you’re doing with your computer.  It may or may not be right for you.  But if you want to know what it’s all about, read on.

In 1991, I had been using computers for some time.  Apple was just starting to get popular, but was still viewed by serious computer guys as a (relatively expensive) toy.  DOS had migrated to Windows, with a GUI and a mouse to make things far easier and much more intuitive than the old command line interface.  And monitors ran graphics and lots of colors to make the interaction a thing of beauty over the old black and green or amber screens.

But, by and large, it was a Windows world.  Windows was King.  And the King demanded his due.  Windows was costly, was often rather buggy, requiring upgrading and patching, had to be defended against viruses and, most irksome to developers, Microsoft refused to disclose its source code.  It was proprietary.  Without access to this code, users and developers were prevented from making any changes or adding any new or different features to the operating system.  Alternative O/Ss such as Unix were also protected and expensive, making them effectively unavailable to PC users.

Developers dreamed for some time of a utopian O/S world in which the source code was readily available to all at no charge, and anyone interested could submit features to modify or upgrade that code, free of charge and also available to all.  Several attempts to develop such an O/S, such as MINIX, just didn’t take off.   Minix was an operating system written from scratch by a Dutch professor, Andrew S. Tannenbaum, who was teaching his students how operating systems worked.                                                           

A major step forward was the work of Richard Stillman, originally of MIT’s Artificial Intelligence Lab and later the founder of the Free Software Foundation which advocated GNU. GNU stands for “GNU is Not Unix”, meaning that it is free and not protected from distibution and modification.  GNU stood for Stillman’s vision that, unlike all other O/Ss at the time, GNU software would be free from any restrictions or costs, so that contributors could make changes resulting in better and more efficient software.  So, in order to start on the path to such software, he created the GCC (“GNU C Compiler”), a necessary tool for compiling an open O/S code.

Enter Linus Benedict Torvalds, a 21 year old second year student of Computer Science at the University of Helsinki (in 1991, at left, recently at right.)  Starting on August 25, 1991, he started posting on newsgroups that he was developing an open-source operating system and solicited comments.     By September, 1991,  Version 0.01 was released for sharing over the Internet.  He didn’t expect much interest.

He was wrong.  An entire Linux community popped up, growing geometrically into the hundreds of thousands and spawning hundreds of “distros” or distributions of the O/S, many of which have added their own features, while still remaining true to the open source and cost free elements for the Linux kernel itself.  Each distro may come with a version number and even a code name (e.g. Ubuntu v. 11.4, “Narwhal”), depending on where it was obtained.  It may also result in other distributions based on it (as Debian has over a hundred releases alone, including the popular Ubuntu).  The code is estimated to be over 30 million lines.  Over the past two decades, Linux has been adapted to work with a vast array of hardware, has resulted in the creation of thousands of free software packages and has been applied to systems as small as PDAs and cell phones and as large as business networks (e.g. Ubuntu server edition) and parallel computers for personal users, businesses and even governments.

Because it is free of charge, has not been subject much to virus attacks (yet), has lots of free apps, has a global and dedicated community of users, quickly acts to adapt to new hardware and has a desktop which superficially emulates Windows and Mac, and it is now used in homes and offices around the world.  However, it still takes a little learning, even if you’ve used Windows or OS X, and it may not support each and every hardware device or software program. Of course, neither does Windows 7 or every version of OS X.  For those instances, just as with Apple computers, there are available virtual machine software allowing you to run Windows programs using Linux. (See Links below).

How did it get the name “Linux”?  Story goes that Linus originally tried to adopt the Minix operating system, but didn’t like it.  Since his program was started to address the problems he had with Minix, he gave it the name “Linux,” meaning “Linus’ Minix”.  But he didn’t want to call it that.  He actually wanted to call it “Freax” (“Free + Freak + x”).  Supposedly his friend Ari Lemmke encouraged Linus to upload it to a network for downloading but, because Ari didn’t like the name Freax, he put it in a directory named “Linux” on his FTP server.  The rest is history.

The logo of Linux is a penguin named “Tux”.  He was selected to symbolize the friendliness of the Linux movement. According to a post by Ragib Hasan of the U. of Illinois, this cute logo has a very interesting history. As put forward by Linus, initially no logo was selected for Linux. Once Linus went to the southern hemisphere on a vacation. There he encountered a penguin, not unlike the current logo of Linux. As he tried to pat it, the penguin bit his hand. This amusing incident led to the selection of a penguin as the logo of Linux sometime later.  Really?

USING LINUX

First, don’t let Linux scare you.  It can be easily customized so that it will not appear or act much differently from the Windows or Mac OS that you’re already used to.  An example would be the Ubuntu desktop, shown below.  Look familiar?

As originally developed, Linux was exclusively text-based, meaning the user had to type commands into a terminal interface, much like the original DOS.  Today, almost all distributions of Linux include user-friendly GUIs.  Just like Windows and Mac created a generation of users who didn’t need to know coding and commands, the Linux GUI freed it’s users from the same limitation.  Installation has also become easier. Gone are the  days when users would need detailed expertise in computer hardware to  install Linux. Distributions like Ubuntu, Debian, Suse, Knoppix, and Red Hat's Fedora Core can be installed by even novice users. Most  distributions are also available in Live CD format, which the users can simply put in their CD drives and boot without installing it to the hard  drive, making Linux available to the newbies who just want to see what it’s all about or test it before installation.

Users can operate the Linux system through either or both of two ways:  A GUI (“graphic user interface” similar to Windows) or a CLI (“command line interface” similar to UNIX). For users of the GUI the CLI is available through what’s known as a “terminal emulator” program within. Each command line starts with “sudo,” which means “super users do,” which is a program for Linux that allows users to run programs with administrator rights.  Sudo is often followed by “gedit,” which is simply a general purpose text editor.

When the Linux system boots, it uses a automated boot loader program named GRUB.  GRUB, the Grand Unified Bootloader, is a flexible and powerful boot loader program from GNU which is used with a wide range of architectures, including Linux.  When it starts, for example, it can offer a dual boot option between Windows and Linux on the same hard drive.

After boot, the standard user interface is a desktop environment.  This is the same type of desktop, with wallpaper, icons, drop-down menus, a task bar and some sort of equivalent to the Windows Control Panel (e.g. Ubuntu “Control Center”), that you would normally expect on your Windows or Mac desktop machine.  Depending on your particular flavor of Linux, the desktop “shell” will have it’s own name and features (or quirks):  Ubuntu uses “Unity,” others use “Gnome” (click HERE for a comparison of the two). The resulting windows function pretty much like the windows to which you are accustomed, kind of a merger between those in Windows and Mac. Many of the distros come pre-loaded with Firefox, Libre Office, CD/DVD burning software and the like.  You simply have to click and use the software.  Depending on your distro, the desktop will have similar but different icons, shortcuts and menus, but the principal is essentially the same.  The settings folders may pretty much emulate the Windows control panel as well.  Because of these similarities, it shouldn’t require much use to become fully acclimated. 

So far, we’re on the same page, I hope.  Then what are the major differences?

One of the few major differences between Linux and other operating systems you may be used to is the File Manager.  In Windows, for example, the file manager is accessed via Windows (not Internet) Explorer, and it provides a hierarchal display of all of the files and folders on the hard drive.  Moreover, programs are installed or uninstalled using the Control Panel or directly with the software package.  Linux is slightly harder.  In order to manage files, each distro comes with one of several available “file” or “software” managers (although you can change to another if you desire).  The most popular ones are KDE and GNOME, both of which are built on an implementation of the “X Window System.”  GNOME (pronounced Guh-nome, with no silent G) is an acronym for GNU Network Object Model Environment.  It provides a fully functional desktop environment and uses a file manager/browser named Nautilus.  KDE uses its own file manager/web browser named Konqueror.  They can be activated off of the desktop menus or from the command line.   Regardless of the name of the file manager, it is always found on the Main menu if not with its own desktop shortcut. In KDE, for example, it’s located under the Main menu, and is named Home. Sometimes finding the file manager can be slightly difficult.

Also, software on Linux systems is organized into “packages,” but even when downloaded, installation isn’t automatic (as in Windows>next...>next...>next...>finish).  You have to use a special utility for this.  When you do so, you will find that Linux is much like the Mac, requiring you to enter your password each time you vary anything in the root directory of the system.

While Windows places both hardware and software tools together in the Control Panel, Linux doesn’t work this way.  They’re separate.  Hardware tools are usually found in the Main menu, under System Settings or the like.  Software tools are also usually found in the Main menu, but separately.  For example, in KDE, to make changes to the desktop, go to Control Center (sometimes Configure Desktop) under the Main menu. 

Also, while both Windows and Linux use the heirarchal file structure, they’re not exactly the same.  Unlike Windows, Linux does not employ the concept of “Drive Letters” which split the file system into a series of different “trees,” one for each drive.  Linux always has only a single tree.  Period.  Different storage devices may be represented by different branches of the same tree, but it’s always the single tree.

Another major difference you’ll have to get used to resides in the heierarchal file system itself.  Linux goes to great lengths to assure that the “core” system files never interact with the individual “user” files.  This is somewhat comparable to the separation between “Admin” and “User” files in Windows.  Further, as opposed to Windows, which almost never secures files, Linux’s default is to secure virtually every file, so that you must edit the “permissions” for each file in order to allow it to be altered, moved or deleted.  [To edit in Linux, Right Click on the file’s Icon, select Properties, then Permissions tab, then edit and save.]

A third big difference in Linux is how you find the programs.  While most program files can be found in the Programs folder in the hard drive (with an icon that has an .exe extension) for Windows systems, it’s not the same for Linux.  Linux shows the programs under the “root” drive (“/usr,” similar to “C:\”), then under a “library” (“/lib”) or similar directory (perhaps “/opt”), where you must drill down into the subdirectories until you reach a program file (often a “.bin” file) which is marked as an “executable” file.  This isn’t all that easy unless you really understand files, which many of us don’t.  It’s much easier to “search” for the program using the Linux search tool.  In Gnome, it’s in Search for Files under the GUI Main menu (or gnome-search-tool for the CLI) and in KDE, it’s in Find Files in the Main menu (or kfind for the CLI).    Make sure you’re browsing the entire hard disk, type in the name of your program, and click “Find” and look for the executable file.  BUT WAIT!  There’s another major difference between Windows and Linux...

For one, you just can’t start an executable program by clicking on it from within the search results box, like you can within Windows.  In order to run the program, you must instead add it to your Linux desktop so that, when you click on it, it’ll start.  Also, this isn’t the same as Windows, where you can right-click on the program in your found files and cut and paste it to your desktop.  Nope.  Make a note of where you found the file.  If you’re using Gnome, go to your desktop and right-click on a blank area, click on “Create Launcher” on the resulting menu(KDE, it’s Create New>File>Link to Application>Application tab), then browse to the folder you just found in the search results, double-click on it, and the icon will appear on your desktop, ready to start the program at your command. 

To me, it’s like re-learning Windows every time a major release comes out.  In addition to new features, the old features are still there, but are moved or renamed.  Take Windows XP, where you go to “Add and Remove Programs” in the Control Panel to remove a program.  In Windows 7, this was changed to “Programs and Features” in the Control Panel.  And the interface is slightly changed, with more choices.  But it’s essentially the same, just renamed and somewhere slightly different, enough to drive you nuts the first few times you look for it.  The various flavors of Linux are kind of like that.

If you’re using the GUI desktop version of Linux, you may never have the occasion to use a command line interpreter any more than you did to use the command line interpreter in Windows.  But if you do, there are many on-line guides to help you (see Links, below). Basically, you must learn to use the shell commands from the terminal emulator.  The shell program used by Linux (and UNIX) is known as “Bash”, which is a command processor that is typically run in a text window, allowing the user to type commands, and also can read and execute a script file (a mini-program containing groups of commands) as well.  Although they are based on Unix, these commands are also quite similar to DOS commands, if you’ve ever had occasion to use them, and they involve (manually) creating, executing and deleting directories and copying, renaming, checking files and folders and setting their permissions within the system. Of course, most of these tasks can be accomplished with the GUI interface as well.

Software programs are available for Linux from various sources.  Many of the distros have their own software centers, which are based on the concept of repositories, which are basically a central location for accessing new software through a catalog of “packages” available for downloading from that site. Many of the distros have a simple interface (like the Ubuntu Software Center or Synaptic) which walk you through the installation process.

For those who desire to write programs for Linux, virtually all programming languages (e.g. C++, Java) are supported.  And many of the applications for Windows or Mac are also available for Linux, or in the alternative have similar (usually no cost) applications written specifically for Linux.

It’s well beyond the scope of this site to explain Linux in more detail, but there are lots of sources both on and off of the Web for that purpose (see Links below).  The main idea here is for you to understand what Linux is, how it came about and how it is used. 

So who would benefit from using Linux?   

- Those people who don’t want to pay hefty fees for the Microsoft or Apple operating software. 

- Or those users who don’t like the idea of using proprietary software that they can’t modify as they see fit. 

- People who are using their computer for relatively simple tasks and don’t have lots of proprietry or specialized software or hardware. 

- Businesses which are using dedicated software systems throughout their network. 

- Computer users who like to fiddle with, customize and fine-tune software.

 If you are a more advanced user, having a Linux boot disk and understanding its uses has other advantages.  Many network devices such as routers, external drives and network printers, as well as VoiP boxes, streaming video set top boxes (like Roku), and Android tablets and smart phones are controlled by embedded versions of Linux constrained to a very specific task.  But they can sometimes be reset or repaired with a Linux boot disk (partition recovery) if they malfunction or crash.  Again, only for advanced users.  But it’s an added feature.

Who wouldn’t?

- People who require absolute consistency with their employers’, clients’ or other people’s software (e.g. if they all must use MS Office Excel 2010, or Quickbooks Premier Accountant’s Version 2011 throughout the enterprise). 

- Those who don’t want to take the time or effort to learn anything new. 

- Or users with lots of specialized, proprietary software or hardware that just can’t be made to work on Linux.

...Yes, you can install virtual machine software to run Windows of Mac software or hardware drivers on Linux, but it slows down the computer (after all, you’re running two operating systems on one machine) and defeats the purpose of running Linux if you have to pay for the Windows or Mac O/S!

HANDY LINKS

DISTROS: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Linux_distributions

GNU: www.gnu.org/

BASH COMMANDS: linuxcommand.org/learning_the_shell.php

GNOME: www.gnome.org

GRUB: www.gnu.org/software/grub/manual/grub.html

UBUNTU: www.ubuntu.com/

FILE MANAGERS:  www.linuxlinks.com/article/20081224191928555/FileManagers.html

KDE:  www.kde.org/ ; also www.linuxnewbieguide.org/content/chapter-7-what-kde

POPULAR LINUX SOFTWARE:  www.dedoimedo.com/computers/new-cool-list-linux.html

DEBIAN: www.debian.org/

WINE WINDOWS EMULATION SOFTWARE:  www.winehq.org/; also www.codeweavers.com/products/crossover/

WINDOWS TO LINUX PRIMER: www.reallylinux.com/docs/windowstolinux.shtml

HISTORY OF LINUX:  netfiles.uiuc.edu/rhasan/linux/

MORE LINUX HELP:  www.tuxfiles.org/linuxhelp/cli.html

OTHER LINUX DEFINITIONS - E.G. DASH, EMPATHY, UNITY - ARE CONTAINED THROUGHOUT THE GLOSSARY, WHERE THE DEFINITIONS MAY BE EASILYACCESSED...

What does Ubuntu mean?  It’s an African word meaning “humanity to others”.  According to the Ubuntu website, it also means “I am what I am because of who we all are,” which seems a suitable definition for the open-source software of the Linux community.

Who is Debian?  Debian is simply a contraction of the names of its creators, Ian Murdock and his wife Debra.

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